twin universe cosmology, ghost matter, astrophysics. 5: Results of numerical 2D simulations. VLS. On a possible scheme for galaxy formation.
Comment:
...This article was part of what had been submitted to A&A in October 1996. This section was extensively analyzed by the journal's anonymous referee, who posed an impressive number of questions during the ten months of our otherwise very courteous dialogue, which we regret was so abruptly interrupted by the journal's editor. Regarding such a model, one immediately raises the question of possible observational confirmations. To this end, one would need to imagine cosmological tests, effects affecting the cosmic background, primarily due to clumps of ghost matter supposedly located in the middle of large voids around which galaxies are distributed. The average diameter of these clumps strongly depends on the chosen "initial conditions." If we increase the temperature T* of the ghost matter, their diameter increases. Below are results obtained with higher temperatures.
Fig. 1: The ghost matter clumps.
Fig. 2: Here, superimposed with ordinary matter.
Fig. 3: The cellular structure of matter.
It should be noted (from the article):
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that the probability of occultation at a given distance r decreases very rapidly with the average diameter f of the clumps. The quantity d is a fixed parameter (average size of the bubbles in the VLS). We then obtain a more regular structure for ordinary matter. However, the scale of such clumps would be so large that they would occult even relatively nearby galaxies located within less than one billion light-years. We know their effect on light is negative lensing, equivalent to observing a scene through a diverging lens. The effect is to reduce the apparent diameter of background objects and concentrate them. See figures 4, 5, and 6.
Positive and negative gravitational lensing effects.
Fig. 5: Analogy with optics.
Fig. 6: Effect on the background.
This would create, for high redshifts, an appearance of an abundance of dwarf galaxies. Indeed, this is precisely what Peebles observes. Classically, astrophysicists believe that when the universe was younger, for an unspecified reason, dwarf galaxies formed first. Then heavier objects appeared, through "galactic cannibalism." The present model offers an alternative interpretation of this aspect of high-redshift observations.
If such ghost matter clumps exist, what might their structure be? We can only speculate. In any case, in our view, everything would form simultaneously: the VLS, the clumps, and the galaxies. Treating the problem as we have done—starting from "initial conditions" calculated "after expansion"—is in itself an aberration. We would need to handle all phenomena jointly. But we do not know how to approach this problem (in any case, since 1994, since Frédéric Landsheat no longer had access to a large computing system, we have lacked computational resources).
If we could, we might then perhaps build a more coherent model of the possible formation and evolution of such clumps. In this paper, we have proposed a model for galaxy formation: precisely because matter is compressed into thin sheets, it can efficiently dissipate energy through radiation. Then, suddenly becoming unstable, it would condense into proto-galaxies. The surrounding ghost matter would be pushed into intergalactic space, where it would immediately exert a counter-pressure on these young galaxies (missing mass effect). However, its relatively high temperature would give it sufficient homogeneity in these regions to avoid creating noticeable effects via negative lensing. Recall that gravitational lensing effect is zero when matter passes through a homogeneous medium, regardless of its density.
It would be extremely interesting to simulate, even just in 2D, interactions between galaxies located within these ghost matter voids (which naturally accompany them in their motion). Logically, if these galaxies approach closely enough and the voids come into contact, this would facilitate their merger. See the suggested scheme in figure 7.
Proposal of a merging scheme for two galaxies.
If ordinary matter, after undergoing compression into thin sheets, could give rise to galaxies due to its ability to cool efficiently, the same would not hold for the more compact, possibly spherical, clumps. In principle—and this will be examined in other papers—there would be no fundamental difference between ordinary matter and ghost matter. Both would be composed of nuclei, protons, neutrons, electrons, atoms, plus all corresponding antiparticles (in paper [15], it is shown that matter-antimatter duality also applies in the ghost universe). However, to describe such a medium, we would need some insight into the primordial nucleosynthesis occurring in ghost matter, i.e., to describe with reasonable accuracy its radiation phase. It could then consist of hydrogen and helium produced by this primordial nucleosynthesis, in vast quantities.
We could then compare these clumps to enormous proto-stars. The amount of heat, for a given temperature, is proportional to the cube of the object's radius, while its emissive surface is proportional to the square. What would then be the cooling time of such clumps? Possibly much longer than the age of the universe. Thus, this primordial gas in the ghost universe would never have been able to radiate enough heat to contract sufficiently for nuclear fusion to ignite (requiring at least 700,000 degrees).
We can thus conjecture that the ghost universe would contain no elements heavier than helium, due to the lack of stars where such elements could be created. These clumps would thus be, for a traveler venturing into this anti-world, merely vast masses of gas emitting in the red and infrared.
But in other works, we will suggest that neutron stars reaching their critical mass could eject matter into the ghost universe via the creation of a hypertoroidal bridge—either gently, or through more violent transfers, for example triggered by the merger of a binary system composed of two orbiting neutron stars around a common center of gravity. We know (from Thibaud-Damour's work) that gravitational wave emission slows their rotational motion. Such mergers therefore appear inevitable.
Such transfers would then enrich the ghost universe with heavy elements. All this, we emphasize, is currently pure speculation. We assume that during a violent transfer, the majority of the mass would be expelled into the ghost universe, where it would remain, the neutron star simply becoming a ghost neutron star. In the case of continuous matter ejection through this "overflow," the material would disperse throughout the ghost universe, being pushed away by the neutron star from which it originated, which remains...